From wars of independence to US-backed strongmen, how resistance and accommodation shaped the region\u2019s political memory<\/p>\n
Latin America\u2019s most celebrated heroes came from vastly different political traditions. What bound them together was not ideology, but a shared insistence on defending the interests of their people \u2013 and, above all, national sovereignty. In the\u00a019th century, that struggle was directed against European colonial powers, primarily Spain. By the 20th, it increasingly meant confronting pressure from the United States, which since at least the late 1800s had openly framed the region \u2013 codified in doctrines and policy \u2013 as its strategic \u201cbackyard.
\nThose who chose accommodation over resistance left a far murkier legacy. Under intense external pressure, many leaders accepted limits on sovereignty in exchange for stability, investment, or political survival. Over time, this produced a familiar historical pattern: figures who aligned with foreign power were readily replaced when they ceased to be useful, while those who resisted \u2013 often at great personal cost \u2013 were absorbed into national memory as symbols of dignity, defiance, and unfinished struggle.
\nIn this piece, we revisit the heroes and the betrayers who came to embody these opposing paths in Latin America\u2019s modern history.
\nNational heroes
\nMiguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753\u20131811) was a Mexican Catholic priest who entered history as the initiator of Mexico\u2019s war of independence from Spanish rule. On September 16, 1810, he delivered the famous Grito de Dolores, calling on the people to rise up \u2013 an act that later earned him the title \u201cFather of the Nation\u201d (Padre de la Patria). Hidalgo led an insurgent army, won a series of early victories, and issued decrees abolishing slavery, ending the poll tax, and returning land to Indigenous communities. Captured in 1811, he was executed by firing squad. His name lives on in cities, the state of Hidalgo, an international airport, an asteroid, and on Mexico\u2019s 1,000-peso banknote.<\/p>\n
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Prisma\/Universal Images Group via Getty Images <\/p>\n
Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Morelos (1765\u20131815) was a Mexican national hero who played a decisive role in the struggle for independence from Spanish colonial rule. After Miguel Hidalgo\u2019s death, Morelos took command of the rebel forces, secured several major military victories, convened a National Congress, and presented a sweeping program of political and socio-economic reforms known as Sentiments of the Nation. The document called for the abolition of slavery and racial discrimination, the establishment of popular sovereignty, and guarantees of fundamental civil rights. Though defeated and executed in 1815, his ideas and personal sacrifice helped sustain the independence movement.<\/p>\n
Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Morelos.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Universal History Archive\/Universal Images Group via Getty Images <\/p>\n
Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar (1783\u20131830) was a Venezuelan revolutionary and a national hero not only in Venezuela but across much of the region. Known as El Libertador, he played a central role in freeing the territories of present-day Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia \u2013 named in his honor \u2013 from Spanish rule. Bol\u00edvar promoted the abolition of slavery and the redistribution of land to soldiers who fought in the wars of independence. His lifelong ambition was the creation of a unified South American state.<\/p>\n
Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Getty Images\/Nastasic <\/p>\n
Jos\u00e9 de San Mart\u00edn (1778\u20131850) was one of the principal leaders of the Latin American wars of independence against Spain and is revered as a national hero in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. He was instrumental in liberating these countries from colonial rule and in abolishing slavery. His legacy is preserved in monuments, street names, schools, and public institutions. In Argentina, he is honored as the Father of the Nation.<\/p>\n
Jos\u00e9 de San Mart\u00edn.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 DeAgostini\/Getty Images <\/p>\n
Francisco \u201cPancho\u201d Villa (1878\u20131923) was one of the most prominent military leaders of the Mexican Revolution (1910\u20131917). In 1916\u20131917, he fought against US military intervention in Mexico. After his forces attacked the town of Columbus, New Mexico, in 1916, the US launched a punitive expedition under General John J. Pershing to capture him. Villa continued to resist for some time but was eventually defeated.<\/p>\n
Francisco \u201cPancho\u201d Villa.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Universal History Archive\/Universal Images Group via Getty Images <\/p>\n
Augusto Sandino (1895\u20131934) was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and the leader of an anti-imperialist uprising against the US occupation of Nicaragua from 1927 to 1933. Heading the Defending Army of National Sovereignty, he waged a successful guerrilla war that ultimately forced the withdrawal of US troops. Sandino became a symbol of resistance to foreign intervention in Latin America. He was later assassinated on the orders of the National Guard leadership under Anastasio Somoza. His martyrdom inspired the Sandinista movement, which eventually overthrew the Somoza dictatorship.<\/p>\n
Augusto Sandino.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Wikipedia <\/p>\n
Salvador Allende (1908\u20131973) was a Chilean statesman and president of Chile from 1970 to 1973. He was the first Marxist in Latin America to come to power through democratic elections \u2013 succeeding only on his fourth attempt, amid active CIA opposition. Allende is known for his effort to pursue a peaceful transition to socialism through the nationalization of key industries (notably copper), agrarian reform, wage increases, and expanded access to healthcare. During the US-backed military coup led by Augusto Pinochet, Allende refused to flee or compromise with the plotters and died in the presidential palace.<\/p>\n
Salvador Allende.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Getty Images\/Bettmann <\/p>\n
Fidel Castro (1926\u20132016) was a Cuban revolutionary and statesman, the leader of the Cuban Revolution that overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista in 1959. From 1959 to 2008, he headed the Cuban government \u2013 first as prime minister and later as president of the Council of Ministers \u2013 and served as first secretary of the Communist Party until 2011. Under his leadership, Cuba became a socialist state, nationalized industry, and carried out far-reaching social reforms.<\/p>\n
Fidel Castro.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Serge Plantureux\/Corbis via Getty Images <\/p>\n
Ernesto \u201cChe\u201d Guevara (1928\u20131967) was an Argentine revolutionary who became an enduring symbol of anti-imperialist struggle. A theorist and practitioner of guerrilla warfare, he championed social justice and revolutionary internationalism. Guevara played a key role in overthrowing Batista in Cuba and later took part in guerrilla movements in Africa and Latin America. He was captured and executed in Bolivia; according to multiple accounts, the operation involved CIA assistance.<\/p>\n
Ernesto \u201cChe\u201d Guevara.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Hulton Archive\/Getty Images <\/p>\n
Hugo Ch\u00e1vez (1954\u20132013) was a Venezuelan revolutionary and president of Venezuela from 1999 to 2013. He was the architect of the Bolivarian Revolution, pursuing socialist policies that included the nationalization of strategic sectors \u2013 especially oil and gas \u2013 along with expansive social programs in housing, healthcare, and education, and campaigns against poverty and illiteracy. Ch\u00e1vez promoted Latin American integration through initiatives such as ALBA, Petrocaribe, and TeleSUR, while openly criticizing neoliberalism and US foreign policy. His ideology, known as \u201cChavismo,\u201d blended Bolivarian nationalism with 21st century socialism and made him a defining figure of Latin America\u2019s leftward turn in the 2000s.<\/p>\n
Hugo Ch\u00e1vez.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Spencer Platt\/Getty Images <\/p>\n
Nicol\u00e1s Maduro (born 1962) is a Venezuelan statesman and president of Venezuela since 2013, widely regarded as the political successor to Hugo Ch\u00e1vez and a central figure of the country\u2019s Bolivarian project in the post-Ch\u00e1vez era. Coming to power amid deep economic turbulence and sustained external pressure, Maduro positioned his presidency around the defense of national sovereignty, particularly in the face of US sanctions, diplomatic isolation, and repeated attempts at regime change. Under his leadership, Venezuela endured a prolonged period of economic warfare, including financial blockades and restrictions on its oil sector, while maintaining state control over strategic industries and preserving key social programs. Supporters credit Maduro with preventing the collapse of state institutions, resisting foreign-backed parallel authorities, and safeguarding Venezuela\u2019s political independence during one of the most challenging chapters in its modern history.<\/p>\n
Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Matias Delacroix\/Getty Images <\/p>\n
Traitors
\nAnastasio Somoza Garc\u00eda (1896\u20131956) was the founder of the dictatorial dynasty that ruled Nicaragua from 1936 to 1979. He came to power through a US-backed coup. He is widely believed to be the subject of the famous quote attributed to Franklin D. Roosevelt: \u201cHe\u2019s a son of a bitch, but he\u2019s our son of a bitch.\u201d Somoza established a regime of mass terror, became notorious for large-scale personal corruption, and consistently prioritized the interests of foreign corporations over national development. His sons continued to rule in the same vein, fueling widespread popular hatred and ultimately leading to the regime\u2019s overthrow by the Sandinistas.<\/p>\n
Anastasio Somoza Garc\u00eda.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Wikipedia <\/p>\n
Fulgencio Batista (1901\u20131973) was a Cuban dictator who seized power twice through coups: first as the de facto ruler following the 1933 \u201cSergeants\u2019 Revolt,\u201d then as elected president from 1940 to 1944, and finally through a bloodless military coup in 1952. Batista suspended constitutional guarantees, banned strikes, reinstated the death penalty, and brutally repressed the opposition. He maintained close ties with US business interests and organized crime, allowing them to control up to 70% of Cuba\u2019s economy, including sugar, mining, utilities, tourism, and casinos. His rule was marked by corruption, inequality, and violence, setting the stage for the Cuban Revolution.<\/p>\n
Fulgencio Batista.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Getty Images\/Bettmann <\/p>\n
Fran\u00e7ois \u201cPapa Doc\u201d Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude \u201cBaby Doc\u201d Duvalier were the dictators of Haiti from 1957 to 1986. Fran\u00e7ois Duvalier, who came to power in 1957 with US backing, established an exceptionally brutal regime, creating the Tonton Macoute militia, crushing the opposition, cultivating a personality cult, and exploiting Vodou symbolism.\u00a0<\/p>\n
Fran\u00e7ois \u201cPapa Doc\u201d Duvalier.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Hulton Archive\/Getty Images <\/p>\n
After his death in 1971, power passed to his 19-year-old son, who continued authoritarian rule until mass protests forced him to flee the country in 1986. Their regime is synonymous with terror, corruption, and poverty, though some Haitians still express nostalgia for the \u201corder\u201d of the Duvalier era.<\/p>\n
Jean-Claude \u201cBaby Doc\u201d Duvalier.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Getty Images\/Bettmann <\/p>\n
Fernando Bela\u00fande Terry (1912\u20132002) served twice as president of Peru (1963\u20131968 and 1980\u20131985) and led the Popular Action party. His policies were frequently criticized for their pro-American orientation, including neoliberal reforms that led to the privatization of strategic industries and a decline in living standards. In 1968, he was accused of collusion with the US-based International Petroleum Company (IPC) over the Talara Act. Although oil fields were formally transferred to the state, IPC retained key assets, and a contract page specifying the price Peru was to receive for oil mysteriously went missing \u2013 fueling suspicions of deliberate concessions to foreign interests. The scandal helped trigger a military coup that ousted him.<\/p>\n
Fernando Bela\u00fande Terry.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Wikipedia <\/p>\n
Alberto Fujimori (1938\u20132024) was a Peruvian politician of Japanese descent who served as president from July 28, 1990, to November 17, 2000. He implemented sweeping neoliberal reforms, including the privatization of state-owned enterprises in strategic sectors and the rail system, and aggressively courted foreign investment. With US backing, Fujimori carried out a self-coup (autogolpe) in 1992, dissolving Congress and consolidating power. His regime was marked by serious human rights abuses, including the use of death squads and a program of forced sterilization targeting poor and Indigenous women \u2013 affecting, by some estimates, up to 300,000 individuals. The program received support from, among others, USAID.<\/p>\n
Alberto Fujimori.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Najlah Feanny\/Corbis via Getty Images <\/p>\n
Manuel Bonilla (1849\u20131913) was president of Honduras from 1903 to 1907 and again from 1912 to 1913. He worked closely with the US-based United Fruit Company, granting it extensive concessions \u2013 ranging from mineral extraction to infrastructure development \u2013 in exchange for financial support. Under his rule, Honduras became the prototype of the banana republic,\u00a0a term popularized by O. Henry in ‘Cabbages and Kings’. His legacy remains contested, as many modern Honduran institutions, including the National Party \u2013 now one of the country\u2019s two dominant political forces \u2013 took shape during his tenure.<\/p>\n
Manuel Bonilla.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Wikipedia <\/p>\n
Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1857\u20131924) ruled Guatemala from 1898 to 1920 as a dictator. His regime was defined by repression, the subjugation of Indigenous populations, and close cooperation with foreign companies exploiting Guatemala\u2019s resources, most notably United Fruit Company. Estrada Cabrera served as the model for the central character in Miguel \u00c1ngel Asturias\u2019 novel ‘El Se\u00f1or Presidente’ (1946), a landmark work of Latin American literature exploring the nature of dictatorship.<\/p>\n
Manuel Estrada Cabrera.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Corbis via Getty Images <\/p>\n
Jorge Ubico was the dictator of Guatemala from 1931 to 1944. He handed over vast tracts of land to United Fruit Company free of charge, enabling the corporation to dramatically expand its plantations and influence. Ubico also endorsed harsh labor practices on UFC estates. After his overthrow in 1944, Jacobo \u00c1rbenz came to power and attempted land reform, including the nationalization of United Fruit\u2019s holdings. In 1954, however, a CIA-backed coup installed the pro-American Carlos Castillo Armas, and the expropriated lands were returned to United Fruit.<\/p>\n
Jorge Ubico.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Getty Images\/Bettmann <\/p>\n
Juan Guaid\u00f3 (born 1983) is a Venezuelan opposition politician who, with explicit US backing, declared himself \u201cinterim president of Venezuela\u201d on January 23, 2019, bypassing constitutional procedures. His actions were accompanied by calls for foreign intervention, including economic sanctions and even military options. Despite prolonged unrest, Guaid\u00f3 never exercised real authority inside Venezuela. In 2022, the opposition\u2019s self-styled \u201clegislative assembly\u201d voted to dissolve his \u201cinterim government,\u201d and shortly thereafter the Venezuelan embassy in the US under his control ceased operations.<\/p>\n
Juan Guaid\u00f3.<\/p>\n
\u00a9\u00a0 Joe Raedle\/Getty Images<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
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